Romanticism and Neoclassical

ROMANTICISM AND NEO-CLASSICAL Romanticism a word that makes one think that it is a piece of art that shows love, a man and a woman. But it is not quite that, romanticism can mean freedom, rebellion, it could symbol intuition, emotion, the individual, and truth. It refers to art work that states feelings, moods, and dominates. An individual expression of experiences which cannot and could not be evaluated or assessed in purely rational or materialistic terms. Romanticism was one of the most unique ism that would most certainly be remembered most.Romanticism started during the time of Neo-Classicism, many disliked the view that Neo-Classicism and so they began a new style. Romanticism valued human emotions, instincts, over rational, rule based approach to questions of value and meaning in the arts, society, and politics. Romanticism can be charactized by formal stylization; the compositional is simplification, and a preference for graphic techniques and expanses of color. Another thing that also inspired the art movement was the attitude towards the landscape.However romanticism wasn’t accepted until 1830. The intention for Romanticism was to create a new world to enter the wreckage of the old; the time for innovation, experiment, new social systems and Utopias, new concepts and morality. A romantic was one who had broken loose from the rigid controls of the past and felt free to move ahead. Romantic artists explored specific values of individuality which Neo-Classicism ignored; the values of intuition, instinct, and even the more in accessible aspects of feelings which reach and exceed the boundaries beyond of reason.There were four non art history facts that were either influenced or affected the art movement were; the American and French Revolutions, the restoration between the Greeks and Turks, and the Age of the Enlightenment. The Enlightenment had a negative effect on the romantics; they attacked the Church. The two artists that are quite interesting to learn about from this period are Eugene Delacroix and Theodore Gericault. They might not be Michelangelo or Paul Klee or any other big shot artist but they are still artists, artists that have done beautiful work and some most incredible art pieces.Eugene Delacroix, born on April 26, 1791, in the month of the Taurus, in Paris suburb called Charenton-Saint-Maurice. He was presumed to be premature, but some expect that his real father was Charles Maurice de Talleyrand, instead of Charles-Francois Delacroix. However Delacroix turned a blind ear to them for he believed that Charles-Francois was his true father. He showed an exceptional talent for music, for the cathedral; who had been a friend of Mozart, Delacroix learnt how to play the piano, violin, and the guitar.He was only nine or ten when according to his friend critic Theophite Silvestre, when he went to Louvre. When he was seven his father died, his mother packed up everything and took Delacroix and Henriette and left to liv e in Paris. His two older brothers were away at war. He was taught by Pierre-Narcisse Guerin and also by Theodore Gericault at Lycee Louis-le-Grand. However he was not on good terms with Theodore; who was seven years his senior to Eugene. Eugene had turned a deaf ear to Gericault’s injunction from the first time he meet him. He felt an instinctive affinity to Theodore’s ideas.It wasn’t until 10 years later after they met that Gericault died at age 32. His art piece Bark of Dante was debt to Theodore Gericault; who he met. Everywhere in his art one can see in the exploitation of the dramatic potential in the waterscape, or in the use of diagonals to convey the sense of struggle and movement in the form of the figures. The bold emphasis on their musculature is incredible. However the theme is and was a thoroughly respectable one. It was free of anything that might rile official dom. After it had been exhibited at the Salon, the French government paid 2,000 francs for it.In his later years he became called â€Å"a volcanic crater artistically concealed behind bouquets of flowers† or even sometimes called The Great Romantic. He could be a lover of women and a work fanatic, an adept at social trivia and a man of wider ranging erudition not only mastery of esthetics but an impressive grasp of music, theater, and literature. His first foreign journey was to England, where he learnt how to ride on horses, which would come in handy for the Moroccan desert. Where he went mostly for politic reasons and not only was it for art it was also to escape the civilization of Paris.He produced over 100 sketches and paintings of the people, their costumes or just the landscape. He demonically turned out more than 850 paintings, thousands of sketches, watercolors, and drawings of art. In his lifetime he produced more than 20 works that were inspired by Shakespeare. He continued to make art till he died; for he was trying to reconcile opposites to see art as a whole. For part of Eugene’s genius laid in his capacity to learn from others. He died in 1863 in Paris, France. One of his artwork titled Orphan Girl at Cemetery which was worked and finished between 1823-1824.Delacroix used oil on canvas with this art. It shows a girl with hair pilled on her head and she is looking to sky. In the background you can just see the church and some crosses. There is a sense of sadness and loneliness in her eyes and her look. Theodore Gericault was born in 1791 into a bourgeois family in Rouen. Gericault moved to Paris as a boy. He has been fascinated by all aspects of equestrian such as races, jumping and riding schools. He was also overwhelmingly attracted by the clashes between individuals; he investigated their various forms in journeys which in England led him to observe the human deluxe.Theodore was educated in the tradition of English sporting art by the Carle Vernet, and even by Pierre-Narcisse Guerin, who disliked his temperament bu t saw a talent in him. He then left and learnt at the Louvre for six years when he realized that he preferred the vitality over the prevailing school of Neo-Classicism. He exhibited his Wounded Cuirassier at the Salon in 1814 and also his first major work The Charging Chasseur at the Salon in 1812. Gericault was a merry, gregarious man whose tastes as a bon vivant did not preclude a deep-seated sympathy for the under dog.He went to Florence, Rome, and Naples in 1816-1817, mostly to escape a romantic entanglement with his aunt. Gericault became fascinated by Michelangelo; which helped inspire his art piece the Race of the Barberi Horses. After he went back to France in 1821 he painted a series of portraits of his friend Dr. Etienne-Jean Georget’s patients; each containing a different diagnosis. Theodore drew his subjects from the crudest parts of reality; he visited slaughter houses, morgues, asylums, delving into the morbid events reported in newspapers, observing the devasta ting corporeal strength of animals.Some of his artworks consist of horses, lions, and tigers. Gericault was also one of the first artist to take up the newly invented process of lithography, producing a serveing of 13 pickes illustrating the life of the English poor. He was in the process of painting new artworks, when his health stroked a final note. Theodore was always riding for his among his passions was horses. He owned them, painted them, and even tamed them. His fatal illness grew on to a riding trip which injured his spine and caused him to waste. He died after a slow period of suffering, in Paris 1834 at the age of 3Art History: Neoclassicism: (1750 – 1830) The term Neoclassicism refers to the classical revival in European art, architecture, and interior design that lasted from the mid-eighteenth to the early nineteenth century. This period gave rebirth to the art of ancient Rome and Greece and the Renaissance as an opposition to the ostentatious Baroque and Rococo a rt that preceded the movement. Although the movement spread throughout Western Europe, France and England were the countries that used the style most frequently in their arts and architecture, using the classical elements to express ideas of nationalism, courage, and sacrifice.The movement was inspired by the discovery of ancient Italian artifacts at the ruins of Herculaneum and Pompeii. Also influential in the development was the cultural studies of German art historian Johann J. Winckelmann who claimed that the most important elements of classical art were â€Å"noble simplicity and calm grandeur. † Neoclassicism emphasized rationality and the resurgence of tradition. Neoclassical artists incorporated classical styles and subjects, including columns, pediments, friezes, and other ornamental schemes in their work.They were inspired by the work of Homer and Plutarch and John Flaxmann’s illustrations for the Illiad and Odyssey. Other classic models included Virgil, Raph ael, and Poussin among others. Neoclassical painters took extra care to depict the costumes, settings, and details of classical subject matter with as much accuracy as possible. Much of the subject matter was derived from classical history and mythology. The movement emphasized line quality over color, light, and atmosphere. The height of Neoclassicism was displayed in the paintings of Jacques-Louis David and Jean Auguste Dominique Ingres.

Influential Factors in Choosing a Programming Language Essay

* To help Gary make decisions about which language to choose, you are asked to provide Gary a list of key factors and their importance in choosing a programming language. Overview of Report When it’s time to develop a new program, the first thing that must be considered is the decision on what programming language to utilise. This is important because changing the program midway through completion is very difficult to achieve, and will often require a vast rewriting of code. There are a number of issues that will influence this decision, and these are: * Organisational policy, suitability of the language, the availability of trained staff, how reliable the program is, cost of development and maintenance, expandability of the language, and interoperability with other languages Organisational Policy All organisations will have policies (methods of practice) dictating that they will operate under specified conditions. A policy of developing applications using one particular language may come from historical use, and a foundation of previous development tools (such as IDEs) for that one language. (M Fishpool, 2007, p.156) To deviate to using another language may in that instance not make sense to the hierarchy of the organisation. This may ring particularly true if the organisation has established a relationship with a particular vendor, such as Microsoft. Maintaining a link with this company may be rewarded with better support and discounts. (Anderson, 2010, p.166) On the other hand, maintaining the use of a particular piece of software (such as Microsoft’s IDE Visual Studio) would limit language choice to those that suit that company’s interests. Another choice they may pursue is to utilise open source software, which brings its own benefits and disadvantages. Open-source software does not offer personalised technical support and relies on an unpaid, potentially unreliable enthusiast community to provide these solutions, but is usually free to use. Suitability Building a program in a language unsuitable for its intended task will cause big problems down the line, which is why understanding the application’s technical requirements is important. The first thing to consider when making a program is what the intended platform will be. This could be computer setups such as Windows, OS X, a Linux-based OS, a web-based application, a smart phone-based app or the option to be platform agnostic could also be desired. Languages that are built to be natively run on one platform (like C++) will be more effective in completing intensive tasks, but building a program in Java means that the application will work the same way on any OS with the Java Runtime Environment (JRE) software installed (Oracle, 2011). The complexity of the program will also affect whether a procedural or object-oriented language will be chosen, as is whether appropriate features are included in the chosen IDE. (Anderson, 2010, p.166) Availability of Trained Staff If a language is popular and used widely (such as Java, C, or C++ (TIOBE, 2011)), then there will be more professionals that are able to code in it than there are for less popular languages. Therefore, choosing a popular language will make it easier to recruit personnel for a new project. Also, looking at what languages the organisation has historically used, the kind of hardware installed, and what skill sets existing employees have will have an impact in this decision. Reliability A program becomes unreliable when how it will deal with data becomes unpredictable, and this is what can cause programs to crash. This is why some languages, like Ada, are created with an emphasis on features that make them less likely to crash. (Anderson, 2010, p.166) The best way of ensuring that code is predictable and reliable is to use a strict language, which is one with a strong type system. A strong type system specifies restrictions on how values of different data types (such as integers and strings) are allowed to be intermixed, and stops the source code from compiling if it thinks data is being incorrectly mixed. This provides a guarantee about how the program will behave when it starts running. (Wikipedia 2, 2011) Development and Maintenance Costs Part of the idea of planning the development of a program also includes the costing of the entire project. In order to do so, we take into account the length of time each development stage will take, and what resources will be needed at which point. A lot of resources are spent before the first line of code is even written to make sure that the language and IDE we choose will be the most suitable and acceptably reliable, because choosing an â€Å"unreliable solution means more money spent in maintenance costs.† (M Fishpool, 2007, p.155) Also, rather than simply creating error fixes, maintenance is also about how the program evolves post-deployment, as suggested by Lehman’s Laws. (Wikipedia 1, 2011) Therefore, how much of the overall budget will go towards the evolution of the application needs to be taken into account. Expandability Expandability is about planning the long term future of the program. Programs in active use will rarely cease to be updated following its first release. It will usually evolve beyond its original specification and require more features to be added, or be asked to process more data. If this is the case and the program is not easily expandable, a lot more time and money than necessary will need to be spent on rewriting code or porting it to a different language. For this reason, object oriented languages are popular because new features can be ‘bolted on’ as additional classes. (M Fishpool, 2007, p.156) If this is not a concern, a procedural language can be used instead. Interoperability The presence of several languages may dictate whether a language needs to be interoperable. Interoperability is achieved when programs coded in different languages are able to work with each other through a common set of standards. (Wikipedia 3, 2011) One way this is done is through the Common Language Infrastructure (CLI) specification, which is implemented using Mono and Microsoft’s .NET. These allow any language that meets the CLI specification to be able to be run by their virtual machine. The most common language is C#, which was especially created to be used in .NET, but dialects of popular languages have been created to be used in a similar fashion (examples include C++/CLI and VB.NET). Summery In this report, we discussed what factors are influential in choosing a programming language for a project. We discovered that companies will have organisational policies which restrict employees to only use certain languages or certain company’s’ software. We also learned that all languages have pros and cons, so that understanding what task our program needs to do will ensure we pick the language that is most suitable. We also need to make sure that there are actually people available to employ to code for us, so we should choose a popular language to make it easier to recruit employees. Reliability is also an area of importance, but for programs where reliability must be guaranteed, we learned that there are languages such as Ada which cater to this specific requirement. Budgets are also an issue as development and maintenance costs will differ between languages, and an unreliable solution means more money spent in maintenance costs. If we need our software to be exp anded in the future, it is also best to choose a language that can support this from the start. Finally, we learned about interoperability and how programs coded in different languages are able to work with each other through a common set of standards. Bibliography Anderson, J.K.L.M.P.a.S., 2010. BTEC National Level 3 IT Student Book 1. 1st ed. Edexcel. M Fishpool, B.F., 2007. BTEC Level 3 National in IT. 2nd ed. Hodder Education. Oracle, 2011. Java Runtime Environment (JRE). [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://java.sun.com/j2se/desktopjava/jre/† http://java.sun.com/j2se/desktopjava/jre/ [Accessed 1 October 2011]. TIOBE, 2011. TIOBE Index. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://www.tiobe.com/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html† http://www.tiobe.com/content/paperinfo/tpci/index.html [Accessed 01 October 2011]. Wikipedia 1, 2011. Software Maintenance. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_maintenance [Accessed 2 October 2011]. Wikipedia 2, 2011. Strong Typing: Wikipedia. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongly_typed_programming_language† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strongly_typed_programming_language [Accessed 14 October 2011]. Wikipedia 3, 2011. Interoperability. [Online] Available at: HYPERLINK â€Å"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperability† l â€Å"Software† http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoperability#Software [Accessed 27 September 2011].

The Nativist’s Response to Immigration

Immigrants have been seeking salvation or just new opportunities in America for hundreds of years. Even Americans originally started off as immigrants. They came to settle in this New World to seek opportunities. These types of immigrants were white, strong, leaders and felt they were superior. In the mid nineteenth century, the â€Å"new† immigrants were also welcomed. According to President Grant, these â€Å"new† immigrants were the weak, broken, and crippled people who had nowhere else to go. Grant thought these â€Å"new† immigrants would ruin the tone of the American life into a more vulgarized tone now that these immigrants are filling up the jails and asylums (Document 4). They mostly came from Southern and Eastern parts of Europe and were poor, ignorant, and illiterate. They were needed for working power and employers liked to use them because they were able to give them cheaper wages. Soon there was an economic boom when machines came to replace the workers. Resentment soon arose since job offers were scarce and immigrants received the jobs over the Americans. Certain groups of Americans opposed open immigration. Many of these people did not want new arrived immigrants to have the right to vote until they have lived in the United States for 21 years. These were often referred to as the Nativist groups. These Nativists were the old type of American immigrants who looked down on these new immigrants and wanted to shield America from them. Nativism did speak out against the Chinese immigration on the West Coast. Nativist arguments say that Chinese immigration would create race antagonism throughout the entire public. This means there will be hostility among the races so there would be separation among the country. In 1882, the Chinese Exclusion Act suspended Chinese immigration for ten years and prohibited the naturalization of the Chinese. The Chinese were once a great asset to America. They came over from China and helped build the railroads. After the railroads were finished, the Chinese were supposed to leave. Instead, they stayed in America for good. The Chinese immigrants now wished to assimilate their own culture and ideas with the American ideas. Americans, mostly Nativists, were extremely bothered by this because the Americans did not want the Chinese to bring their alien culture to America (Document 1). Other groups, who resented other races from assimilating, organized classes so the immigrants can learn the American language and way. They said immigrants should become citizens by learning the â€Å"American language. † They thought if the people that come to America and don’t learn the way of the Americans, then this country will soon be just like the old country, the country which they have already left (Document 3). Resentment over immigration still arose within the United States. Many writers began to blame immigrants for problems regularly occurring throughout time. E. A. Ross wrote that immigrants had a strong influence on American politics and government. He said that the simple minded foreigner is the tap-root to the main issue. The tap-root is the source of the problem. Ross said that once that simple minded foreigner unleashes his ideas, the foreigners get a stronger grip on the situation. They soon broaden and entrench their power by intimidation at the polls; they have ballot frauds, saloon influence, and much more. This will all start from one foreigner and will soon increase till the foreigners have a larger vote (Document 7). Other writers like Rev. Josiah Strong blamed certain â€Å"diseases† on immigrants. These were not actual diseases but more like problems in the country. He blamed immigrants on the lack of holiness in the Sabbath and how it is now a holiday. He also blames the liquor traffic on the immigrants too (Document 2). Whether the immigrants came to America or not, these problems would still be here. It’s human instinct to attack a different race or religion when a problem comes about. That is exactly what the Americans were doing to the immigrants. There was always a large amount of immigrants arriving into the United States. The greatest danger of unrestricted immigration is that the immigrants can overrun the master race and they can have more control then the Americans (Document 5). When a lower race mixes with a higher race in sufficient numbers, history proves that the lower race will prevail. If the Americans continue to let unrestricted amounts of immigrants enter the United States, their thoughts and believes would soon alienate the Americans and the Americans would soon become the strangers in their own country (Document 6). Once Americans began accepting that there is no way to completely stop the flow of immigrants into America, they began to find ways to limit the amount arriving. In 1921 the National Origins Act was put into effect. It looked at the immigration record to find a base year. They looked at the year that the fewest immigrants arrived and called that the base year. They used the base year as the quota for immigrant arrival. Illegal immigration continued and the immigration and Naturalization office spent a good deal of time tracking down and deporting illegal immigrants. Finally the immigration Act of 1985 was passed which said that an illegal immigrant who has been in America for at least five years, and who can prove it, can apply for citizenship and become an American citizen. As long as the flow of immigrants is carefully regulated then immigration should be no problem, maybe even beneficiary.

Juvenile Offenders Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Juvenile Offenders - Term Paper Example Third, majority of the juvenile offenders have a traumatic history which not only questions their mental health but also the efficiency of social institutions such as schools, high schools, hospitals, family and others to ensure proper development of children. Fourth, European Convention of Human Rights, Universal Declaration of Human Rights, United Nations Convention on Rights of the Child and other international charters and conventions clearly state about the right of every person to live and the fact that children can not receive capital punishments. Fifth, the public opinion is supports the stance of this paper. Sixth, capital punishment evades the chance of any individual to prove him or her innocent in future in light of any new developments or evidence. Introduction This paper is an attempt to explore the controversial, serious, and debatable issue about juvenile offenders. The paper discusses the question of legal execution of juvenile offenders who are less than the age of 18 years and have committed a murder. Statement of Problem The paper will take the stance that "Juvenile offenders who commit murder under the age of 18 should not be legally executed". ... First, since the past few years, this issue has been of great attention and debate in the public and expert circles. Second, in light of my personal stance on the topic, I believe that by legal execution of juvenile offenders, the law enforcement agencies are not following but breaking the law and contributing to a crime and it is our responsibility to play our part to stop it. Third, children are the future of any nation and if they are committing such actions then this is a wake up call for all authorities and with the help of this paper, I put emphasis on the fact that it is time for them to sit down and reexamine the entire system and the root cause of the same. Discussion One of most important arguments in opposition of juveniles facing legal execution is the fact that studies have shown that children under the ages of 18 are still in their developmental stages. During this age, juveniles are still immature and they fail to understand the full weight and consequences of their de cision (Siegel & Welsh, 2008). Furthermore, children are more vulnerable to peer-pressure and are more likely to engage in risky behaviors. Since they are developmentally different from adults, they fail to control their temptations and impulses, which make it morally incorrect to treat them as adults or blame them for their actions in the same way as adults (Hesse, Lawrence & Hesse, 2009). That is also the reason why 18 years is the minimum age for every big step in life. There are many countries in the world, which do not allow marriage before the age of 18; in fact, some countries and states extend the same to the limit to the age of 21 (Boesky & American Correctional Association, 2002). Moreover, 18 years is also the minimum age for voting, entering into a

Statement of purpose Personal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Of purpose - Personal Statement Example onjunction with having pursued additional course modules on English as a Second Language at ELS Charlotte, English language at the English Language Center, and Intermediate Algebra I acknowledged that in contemporary times, the role that technology plays in education is paramount. I would like to specialize on technology tools, applications, development of instructional designs that integrate technology in the fast changing contemporary learning environment, among others. I strongly believe that Utah State University accords the most effective dynamic and multi-dimensional approach that would assist in achieving my goals. As I am indebted to my home country for according me with opportunities for professional growth, I plan to apply what I would be learning in advanced knowledge, skills, and competencies to educational institutions in my home country; where I plan to teach in post-secondary or undergraduate levels. I am confident that the wealth of diverse learning that would be generated from Utah State University would enable me to be an instrumental contributor to the growths and developments of students who would be under my direct tutelage; and more so, on the educational institutions that I plan to propose improvements in the learning

Great sphinx Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Great sphinx - Research Paper Example This is one of the oldest and the world’s largest statues ever known in the history. However, the time frame and the builder of this sculpture is not known in the history but according to historians this statue was built during the reigning period of King Pharaoh on the west bank of river Nile in Giza. The Great Sphinx is almost 65 feet tall in height with a width of 20 feet and 260 feet in length (http://www.sacred-destinations.com/egypt/giza-sphinx). The sculpture of Great Sphinx is mythological representation of the faith that people believed in. According to historians, people used to worship the Great Sphinx for believing it as a mystical solar power. However, some historians believed that King Pharaoh built this huge sculpture to leave an impression of his splendor, dignity and authority on the minds of his enemies. The Great Sphinx holds a high position in world’s history. It is a magnificent piece of art produced by Egyptian builders. The Great Sphinx transmits the historical message of King Pharaoh’s divinity and authority on the region. The message conveyed by the enigmatic sculpture is mysterious and mystical in some ways. According to historians, this enigmatic sculpture faces the east side which shows a strong eternal connection between the Rising Sun and the ruler. It also represents the ancient thinking that light always wins over darkness. However, it is also believed that the image represents the magnificent and divine power of the King (Charles Orser). It was an old Egyptian myth that the Great Sphinx stands as the â€Å"Guardian of Giza plateau with its face towards the direction of the rising sun. It was the centre of the solar worship which was surrounded by different other temples. The Sphinx’s face is constructed into a lion’s face which was considered as the symbol of â€Å"solar power† in ancient Eastern civilizations. In Early Egyptian Dynastic period, the king or the

Enterprise Book Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Enterprise Book - Case Study Example ion through high quality services such as through fast transactions and helpfulness of the staff, the ESQi provides the appropriate environment that helps in fulfilling this objective (Exhibit 3). This is because it is tied to the entire organization’s main processes including employee compensation. Customer satisfaction, with respect to ESQi, became the main agenda where the customers were contacted to provide feedback on their experience when being served by the company. As such, the managers became responsible for the scores. The tool was also the main determinant of whether an employee could be promoted where a good score of the subject employee’s branch would guarantee promotion after they had been working in the company for a specified period. This implies that the salaries were tied to the individual’s performance in the duties assigned. This mode of compensation prompted the employees to work more time than what had been specified by the company so as to increase the chances of promotion and higher salaries resulting from the branch’s performance. This system would be very effective if the company ensures that all employees are well aware of its operations and if it is followed to the letter. This is because it has sparked increased motivation to the point that the employees are willing to work longer than the company has stipulated. Additionally, it sparks a commitment among the employees, which would function as a competitive advantage for Enterprise. The most important issue with respect to emerging issues in the market is the idea of consolidation between two main players that include DTG and Vanguard. The merger may present a significant threat to Enterprise although independent efforts by either DTG or Vanguard do not measure to Enterprises’ operations (Exhibit 1). This could be a main threat because combination of operation means combination of managerial ideas where such a merger could result in a very strong managerial practice to

History of Germany Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

History of Germany - Assignment Example 2. The environmental concerns were multiple. First of all, because of enormous coal mining in Germany, the coal resources were slowly reducing; moreover, because of the coal mining there were huge mounds of rock and waste of the industry, which occupied huge territories. Also, development of industries was gradually destroying atmosphere and polluting air. Furthermore, the issue of air pollution was extremely important in those times, because they were new and people hadn’t yet created any solutions for the issues like that. The population boom rose up a question concerning overpopulation in Germany and hence the demand for production of goods and resources also increased, which led to partial depletion of natural resources. 3. Weimar Constitution was very vicious as it was extremely delusional in its democratic focus. First of all, it made people think that they lived in democratic republic and had their right to take control over political power. In fact, it helped Hitler to rise to power, as he used the opportunity of free speech and liberal values in order to establish his authoritarian power. The problem was that Hitler’s party was the biggest in those times and therefore it acquired more votes than any other party in the elections of 1933. Moreover, people were dissatisfied with Socialist Democrats ruling, so Hitler’s party was the only appropriate choice for them. 4. The very first reason why women voted for Hitler back in 1933 was that Nazi Party was proclaimed to be a Christian party and they stated that they were standing for Christianity, so women, who are considered to be greater fighters for their religious values than men, were glad that such a religious party was going to rule. Talking about urban women, they were more open-minded and well-informed of what was going on in the country, so voting for Nazi Party was the only choice for them, as well as for the men who agreed that Socialist

Communication and Cultural Studies Annotated Bibliography

Communication and Cultural Studies - Annotated Bibliography Example "We asked participants to revise and expand their conference papers with these perspectives in mind. The resulting volume presents an interdisciplinary look at how power and forms of cultural representation interacted in the context of Austrian-American relations during the cold war. Taken as a whole, the contributions challenge naive notions of cultural imperialism." "Since the beginning of time, humans have expressed a concern for ethics. Plato Republic is essentially a work of political ethics, as is Aristotle Nicomachean Ethics. For both Plato and Aristotle, the "good" person was a conscientious citizen contributing to the city-state. The notion of civic virtue implies a citizenry that is informed, active, selfless, enlightened and, above all, just." Rhetoric and the study of communications have long lent themselves to research into ethics. "There is universal agreement that human communication demands concern for ethics." These essays are the product of a conference of international proportions that were sponsored by the Linacre Centre to discover the importance of the encyclical Evangelium vitae (in 1995) of John Paul II. The purpose of the study was for healthcare ethics.

Adoption of the Euro and the European Countries Economies Essay

Adoption of the Euro and the European Countries Economies - Essay Example It is evident from the study that the need to achieve a stable monetary and economic stability for these countries, the need for appropriate rule of law and respect for the human rights and the protection for the minorities, the proper and efficient functioning of the market economy, to enhance the capability of all the countries to work together in the face of economic as well as political crises and pressure of the market forces etc. It was also aimed to achieve full cost transparency and price transparency. These were aimed to achieve for the single market for goods and services as well as for labour and capital. They aim was focused on the achievement of the exchange rate stability and economies of scale in the production process and hence on an efficient market mechanism with efficient market allocation and distribution of resources. Among the other major economic goals, the need for an introduction of low inflation and low level of long-term interest rates for the member countr ies. The benefits obtained from the adoption of the euro can be discussed considering two perspectives. One is from the point of view of the economies of each countries and the other from the perspective of the euro zone as a whole. Considering first the entire euro area it can be said that the adoption has helped all the countries to achieve greater economic and monetary stability. It also helped to achieve greater economies of scale as well as greater economies of scope in the production of goods and services. ... g the other major economic goals, the need for an introduction of low inflation and low level of long-term interest rates for the member countries (Tumpel-Gugerell, 2007). Benefits: The benefits obtained from the adoption of the euro can be discussed considering two perspectives. One is from the point of view of the economies of each countries and the other from the perspective of the euro zone as a whole. Considering first the entire euro area it can be said that the adoption has helped all the countries to achieve greater economic and monetary stability. It also helped to achieve greater economies of scale as well as greater economies of scope in the production of goods and services. It also helped in achieving efficient market outcomes with efficient allocation of scarce resources of the economies along with efficient distributions. The biggest benefit from the adoption was the exchange rate stability and the price stability among the member countries. After the adoption, the Euro pean countries experienced low rate of inflation and lower rate of long-term interest rates (Tumpel-Gugerell, 2007). There has been a process of convergences with respect to stable long-term interest rates and low inflation rates. After the adoption of the euro, monetary policies became more credible to the markets compared to the pre-adoption period. This was one of the major benefits that the eurozone has acquired from the introduction of a single monetary authority. The monetary policies were initiated with the major goal of reaching price stability and interest rate stability. The targeted inflation rate was mentioned to be within 2 % in the medium run (Schadler, 2005, pp. 106-110). Events, such as oil price shock in the early 1990s, have created great barriers to achieve this price and

Supplier and Vendor Selection Process Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Supplier and Vendor Selection Process - Essay Example Their past records supplying for other companies should be viewed. This is to enable the company determine the risks at hand. If a supplier has a record of giving excuses and not delivering the supplies on time, they should be discarded as quickly as possible. This is also to prevent falling behind schedule due to problems caused by a party external to the company. The second element in choosing a supplier is their experience especially in serving similar contracts. In essence, the focus should be selecting the very best of suppliers to meet the needs at hand. An experienced supplier would have many benefits to the company. First of all, the supplierwould provide the very best quality materials. Secondly, their experience would most likely make them efficient and thus the chances of a discount are high. The third aspect to consider in choosing the supplier is the costs demanded by the supplier. Every company focuses on the reduction of costs and thus such a contract should be aimed at the same. The supplier with the least costs but with the best quality should be chosen upon. The fourth element to base the choice upon is the amount of time available. Given that time is more or less limited for all activities, the company that can deliver the supplies required in the shortest time possible. This should consider the quality of supplies since the hurry could be an opportunity to deliver poor quality items. The last element is the future plans of the company. If the company aims at a continued contractwith the supplier, a strict set of requirements should be used since all the company should focus on is obtaining the best supplier both in terms of quality and reliability. In conclusion, it is you, as the chief executive of this company, should endeavor at ensuring that the supplier given the deal is the best as stipulated by the conditions of the contract at hand and the goals of the company.

Napoleon Power Essay Example for Free

Napoleon Power Essay From 1799 to 1814, Napoleon Bonaparte was the emperor of France. On November 9, 1799, Napoleon and members of the legislature removed the Directory, dictatorship of five men during the French revolution, from office because the Directory was weak and failed to improve conditions in France. A new constitution was formed consolidating Napoleon’s position and Napoleon was named first consul of the republic because of a vastly agreed plebiscite, a one-time vote by all French men, in December 1799. Bonaparte used his domestic policies, great military tactics, and foreign policies to keep himself in power from 1799-1815. Napoleon established domestic policies in order to maintain order, end civil strife, and gain the popular support he needed in order to keep himself in power. When the Concordat of 1801 was signed by Napoleon and Pope Pius VII, the pope gained the right for French Catholics to practice their religion and Napoleon gained political power in the church. Napoleon’s government paid the clergy, nominated bishops, and exerted influence over the church in France. Additionally, he worked out agreements with elite groups in France in which the groups received favors in return for their loyal service to him. Bonaparte granted amnesty to thousands à ©migrà ©s, nobles who fled France during the revolution, because they took a loyalty oath and returned to France. Additionally, members of the returning elite soon occupied numerous high positions in France. In order to gain the support of the middle class Napoleon established the Civil Code or Napoleonic Code in March 1804. The Napoleonic Code included two principles of the revolution; equality of all male citizens before the law, and absolute security of wealth and private property. The Napoleonic Code also took away many rights gained by women during the French revolution. Women relied on either their fathers or their husbands, and they couldn’t have bank accounts or construct contracts in their own names under the Napoleonic Code. Additionally, since Bonaparte believed in a strong centralized government, he declared himself emperor in 1804. Additionally, Napoleon used military victories to keep himself in power. Napoleon was victorious in war with Austria that ended in 1801 and war with Britain that ended in 1802. Britain and Austria signed a peace treaty at the end of the war that acknowledged an expanded France. Napoleon led his armies to many victories throughout Europe, conquering several countries. Napoleon’s Empire soon became known as the Grand Empire. The Grand Empire he had built had three parts. By 1807 France ruled territory that stretched from Portugal to Italy because of Napoleon’s strong military tactics. The first part of Napoleon’s Empire was an ever-expanding France, which included Belgium, Holland, parts of northern Italy, and a significant portion of German territory by 1810. The second part of his empire contained dependent satellite kingdoms. The third part of Napoleon’s Empire consisted of the allied independent states of Austria, Prussia, and Russia. Napoleon strength of foreign policies is another significant factor that kept him in power. Under Napoleon, French armies spread nationalism, pride in ones country, to conquered countries which led to some peasants and middle class people supporting him. Through his supporters, Napoleon desired to stay in power but because his armies lived off the land, plundered local treasuries, requested food, and requested supplies; many people in conquered countries disliked him. Additionally, Napoleon disposed of several European rulers from countries he had conquered and gave their thrones to members of his family which were incapable leaders. Since the members of Napoleon’s family were bad rulers, many members of conquered countries were dissatisfied with his rule. Although Napoleon wasn’t able to satisfy everyone, his spread of nationalism helped him stay in power. From 1799 to 1815 Napoleon used his foreign policies, great military tactics, and domestic policies to keep himself in power. Napoleon’s strategies throughout his rule proved that his main goal was to keep himself in power. The domestic policies that Napoleon implemented appeased many of the groups I the country which helped keep him I power. During his Reign Napoleon was a brilliant tactician and he defeated armies all over Europe. The strength of Napoleon’s leadership and the Nationalism that followed made other countries citizens desire to be part of his team which contributed to his success.

Women in the police force

Women in the police force Chapter One: Introduction The role of the police in the society can neither be overlooked nor belittled; without the police force to enforce the law, which facilitates reduction of crime and disorders and to protect individuals as well as national property, human coexistence would be unbearable if not impossible. The police forces are divided into various arms according to the issues in the society and the structuring varies from one state to another as stipulated in those nations constitutions. For many centuries prior to the 19th, the police force was almost purely for men as it was argued that the job descriptions were not suitable for women. Law enforcement was traditionally perceived as male field; todays presence of women in this career is a product of countless legal battles. In many countries the tests for entry into the force were agility and strength. The gates of police work were not opened to those who did not meet the physical requirements. The battle had to be taken to the courtroom resulting to the Amendment of Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act. The amendment prohibited race, sex, religion and color based discrimination (Seklecki Paynich, 2007). Problem Formulation:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The recruitment of women in the police force can be traced from the 19th century; nevertheless this recruitment has been found wanting. There has been an imbalance as far as the status and the number of women in the force is concerned. This paper aims at expounding on the conditions of women in police force; are the conditions fair? Does gender biasness prevail in the police force? What situations are women police forced to bear with in performance of their duties? The hypothesis of this literature review is, â€Å"does gender have an effect of how police officers are treated in the workforce?† Some of the challenges that have been identified as what women law enforcers go through include: Recruitment, Promotion, job description, affirmative action and gender, sexual harassment, self esteem, qualification requirements among many others. Some of the things that will be established in this paper include: Conditions to be fulfilled for recruitment in the force , challenges of promotion to higher ranks, affirmative action in the endeavor to better police women conditions in the force among other key issues that affect police women directly. Sexual Harassment: Theorists has posited that oppressions that are based on gender or/and sexual orientation are intrinsically linked. Harassing behaviors that are based on gender or sexual orientation are based on a common root that aims at maintaining a patriarchal society which stipulated gender roles. Sexual harassment in workplace was defined by Magley (1997, p. 15) as â€Å"unwanted sex-related behavior at work that is appraised by the recipient as offensive, exceeding [ones] resources, or threatening [ones] well-being.† This problem is very common in many nations USA having no immunity; its estimated that 35- 50% of all US women and 9-35% of all US men have been victims to sexual harassment. Shaw has observed that sexual harassment is not only physical, but also involves; comments, treatment in sexual nature, and any activity that is based on a persons gender and makes the person feel uncomfortable. Gender Bias: Sexism is a way of thinking about sexes; sexism is a form of discrimination, or gender based biasness. Gender roles emanate from having such a way of thinking. Many people are socialized to believe that there are chores for men while some others are for women, hence if one is seen doing what is culturally believed to be for the other sex, its perceived as ‘incorrect conduct. Gender biases are based on stereotypes, where people are judged according to their physical traits, physical abilities, interest, occupation attitudes and personality traits. Gender biases are the basis for maltreatment of female law enforcers (Shaw, 2000). Chapter Two: LITERATURE REVIEW Masculinity Culture:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Santos (2004) made observation of the challenges that Latin American (Brazilian) women police were going through prior to establishment of women police stations. The case study explained how the women police managed to overcome the masculinity culture that was dominating the police force and perceiving the women in the force as just items of showing gender concern for the nation but not for any â€Å"real work.† Santos has concurred with Conselho Nacional dos Direitos da Mulher (2001) observations that women police in Brazil were discriminated and accorded the light duties as such was the most rational approach to their role in the force considering their gender; women can not manage hard tasks. Indeed the very absence of institutionalized gender-based training for women police was a clear indication of the limitation of creation of womens space in the masculine and repressive arm of the state.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Natarajan (2009) argued that there is a need to have a separate but an identical model of policing whereby men and women should have separate departments. The reason behind such an argument was based on Natarajan observations that despite the fact that the western countries had moved from what he referred to as â€Å"reluctant separate and unequal status for women police officers,† the police women remained to be numerically minority and demeaned in role playing within the police force. She pointed out that the women police were faced with barriers to equal access to diverse roles and tasks available in the police force as compared with their male counterpart. High integration is not an option if women will have equal opportunities as men in maintenance of law and order. His argument was that use of â€Å"back door† approach would facilitate recognition of women value as officers in police department. From a research conducted in among Indian police she argues that ineffectiveness in police department especially on gender issues result from men domination of police force, women are not free to express their challenges to men. Underground Discrimination:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Silvestri (2003) has noted that despite many nations removing barriers that were preventing women from entering to the male-dominated police career, the structures are yet to be fully transformed to warmly accept women in the field. He has pointed on the ratio in their leadership in police top positions as an open evidence of that fact. For example in Australia, they occupy just 6.3 percent of the top national policing while US top police leadership has 5 percent women representation. His argument is that discrimination of women policing is still on but less visible and more subtle and discrete, it operates from the underground and the police women experience it and are affected daily by it, no wonder have higher stress as opposed to male police. Women Integration: The integration of women in police force is far from being achieved. Natarajan (2001) has posited that in many countries if not all, women comprise of a very minute percentage of serving officers. He draws from many studies that identified that women are yet to be fully accepted as qualified candidates from the duties in police department. Barriers to full integration emanates from various circles, including: male officers prejudices, societal attitude and beliefs on police career and women, and inherent differences between both sexes in physical capabilities. The women law enforcers that were studied complained of; lack of promotion, family suffering because of tight work schedules, getting late for marriage which resulted to birth complication, and works that were physically draining. Natarajan stated that these reasons have used to justify lack of integration, for women were not fully contented with what the police career entailed. Leadership Imbalance:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Silvestri (2005) noted that in Wales and England glass ceiling has been cracked in the police force; however the number of women in the force and in high positions remains to be disappointingly low. Silvestri noted that a decade after Pauline Clare was appointed as first Britain woman chief constable, there was very little change in ratio of traditional men to women police amidst numerical increase of women in police force. He argues that myths of women as weaker sex and lacking ability to manage the heavy duties in the police force are still prevalent. Drawing from a research on what it takes to be police leader, he found out that police leaders are expected to be knowledgeable agents, of which stereotypes posits that women have lesser knowledge compared to their male counterpart. He noted that police force is faced with a challenge of long working hours which though unsuitable for both men and women, women suffers the more for they long hours are incompatible wi th womens family roles; consequently demeaning any hopes of rising up the leadership ladder. Women Stress: Stress Spillover   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thompson, Kirk and Brown, (2005) conducted a research on stress spillover among police women and how it affects their careers as well as their family. The high occupational demands in the police force acts as limitation to women advance in police career. They noted that women are known to reflect more workplace stress more than men, consequently women who are interested in making their marriages and families work find it hard to cope with police force work. They found out that emotional exhaustion act as a mechanism through which workplace stress spills over to the family, consequently reducing family cohesion. Thompson, Kirk and Brown, (2005) shared their findings with Morash and Kwak (2006) that the victims suffer interpersonal disorder such as withdrawal which affects women more than men. Women being more socialized to family hood resolve to giving in to their families than careers, this is taken as the base of women low ranks in the police force. The stereotyp e is used to abase the police women in their pursuit of senior positions. Rank and Stress: While conducting a research on the relationship between high ranking women officers and low ranking women officer among Greek officers, Antoniou (2009) identified high ranking officers were more stressed in comparison of low ranking. He pointed out the difference was as a result of the male bosses attempt to oppress women not to rise upper. This strategy was observed as having been employed in many states. He identified that women were intimidated through threat of their personal integrity, exposure to danger, and violence and rape threats by fellow officers or criminals. Stressor and Obstacles: Dowler and Arai (2006) conducted a study to identify how the male dominated field may increase stressors and obstacles among female police. They first noted that despite the steady growth of women in the police force, they are still by far under represented with 12.7% only of the entire body of large organizations lawn enforcers and 8.1% in small agencies. They noted that from time immemorial police work was perceived to be mens hence masculinity subculture is yet to be exited creating additional stressor for female officers based on male centered environment. The women experience significant resistance and resentment from male administrators, supervisors and counterparts, especially by the chauvinists who have grave reservations on women in relation to competency as law enforcers. The reservations and resentments are based on femininity stereotypes. Women police table men-colleagues attitude towards them and their career as the most significant setback that they face in doing their work. They identified that men and women police have divergent perceptions on gender discrimination, which acts as the source of conflict as women feels they are judged according to their gender. Dower and Arai concurred with McCarty, Zhao and Garland (2007) who argued that workplace stress is manageable if one had peer support to share challenges with. Police law enforcers have a low percentage of women hence in many places women have no one to share their pains with. Stress and Suicide: While reporting on a study conducted on the rates of suicides among police officers as compared with their respective genders Burke (2006), observed that the rate of male officers who committed suicide was lower than the total males who committed suicide, but police women suicide rate was four times more than all the women who committed suicide. The study therefore concluded that police women were subjected to more stress than male counterpart. Women Reactivates: Sun and Chu (2008) conducted a research in an attempt to identify gender differences in policing. The study was geared towards understanding what approach the police prefer as the most effective to law enforcement. The women respondents were more supportive to an aggressiveness approach as opposed to men. The researchers argued that the reason for women attraction to aggression was in an attempt to prove that they were capable and did not fear male criminals. This was perceived as a strategy to put off stereotypes against women law enforcers. In a study conducted by Seklecki and Paynich (2007) on police womens perception about their career as law enforcers, most of them felt that they were equally capable if not better than their male peers. Most the interviewees tabled harassment from their male peers and their husbands based on their career as the greatest challenge they face daily. Most of them were found to deliver better than men since they worked with an attitude of proving the allegations that they are lesser able wrong. Criminals also were easily caught by women for most perceived women as not being able to hand put them into trouble. Their greatest battle is fighting chauvinistic harassment. Public Perception:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Yima and Schaferb (2009) conducted a research to identify how the public perception of police affects the officers job satisfaction. The research identified that the public perceptional image on officers influences their job satisfaction as well as delivery. Community perception of women law enforcers is that they are less capable as compared with their male counterpart, this demoralizes the officers and most of the time they do a duty to prove that they are able not to fulfill their duty. While not on duty they are esteemed for achieving â€Å"mens† career, but are not trusted as capable of delivering. Affirmative Action:   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Tougas and Beaton (2005) observed that were it not because of affirmative action in the United States, women would have remained to watch and admire the traditionally male-dominated careers. Nevertheless they did not fail to notice that change in workforce composition was still facing immense challenges. Police work was perceived as requiring males because of the physical strength required and the dangers police officers are exposed to. Women involvement in the work was perceived as challenging masculinity icon of the work. They shared the observations with Hunt (1990) in arguing that violence and criminal issues are not feminine, hence women should keep of and let those who are endowed for such (men) deal with them. They argued that this were the basis for harassment, exclusion from some tasks, and discrimination. Tougas and Beaton argued that as much as affirmative action has facilitated a great deal of women entry to the force, the numerical imbalance is still immensely visible. Perception of police women as lesser police is a prevalent form of sexual harassment. Collins (2003) conducted a research geared towards identifying why there was a significance increase in the harassment among female law enforcers despite having laws that are supposed to protect female officers from such harassment, from the public or their peers. The writer identified that Florida criminal justice standards were wanting as in many other states. The article writer noted that despite collecting enough evidence of pervasiveness related to sexual harassment, the number of sexual harassments were on the increase. He argued that the increase emanated from the minimal discipline that was imposed on culprits, it was substantial hence encouraging more men to do if not repeat such acts. Chapter Three: Conclusion- Seklecki and Paynich   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In an attempt to find an answer to the hypothesis of whether gender have an effect of how police officers are treated in the workforce, Seklecki and Paynich (2007) conducted a national survey of female police officers. They pointed out that to have women in law enforcement was a battle that was won in courtroom through amendment of the constitution. They have noted that the police force was men workplace and women were expected to keep off for the duties involved required masculinity. Seklecki and Paynich identified that qualification to the police force required agility and physical strength.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Seklecki and Paynich conducted literature review on the findings of various writers on women policing. They found out that the entry of women to law enforcement career has been very low with as little as 15% of the entire police force. They have observed that police force is still structured for men limiting women from joining and fully exploiting their potential in the career. They observed that discriminations against women are still prevalent. The behaviors of female officers such as excessive use of force were linked to the discriminations, in attempts to prove they were equal police to their male counterparts. Seklecki and Paynich observed that objection of women from joining law enforcement career was/is an attempt to maintain patriarchal society and roles.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Seklecki and Paynich observed that to ensure that women self-esteem in policing career was abased, male counterpart have created a negative work environment for women police. Female officers operate under pressure compared to male peers. References: Antoniou, A. (2009). Occupation-specific precursors of stress among Greek police officers: the roles of rank and gender. International Journal of Police Science Management, 11(3), pp. 334-344. Burke, R. Richardsen, A. Martinussen, M. (2006). Gender differences in policing: reasons for optimism? International Journal of Police Strategies Management, 29 (3), 513-523. Collins, S. (2003). Sexual harassment and police discipline: Whos policing the police? International Journal of Police Strategies Management, 27(4), 512-538. Conselho Nacional dos Direitos da Mulher, (2001). Pesquisa nacional sobre as condigoes defuncionamento das delegacias especializadas no atendimento as mulheres: Relatorio final. Brasilia. Dowler, K Arai, B. (2006). Stress, gender and policing: the impact of perceived gender discrimination on symptoms of stress. International Journal of Police Science Management, 10(2), 123-135. Hunt, J. (1990). The logic of sexism among police. Women and Criminal Justice, 1, 3-30. Konik, J. Cortina, L. (2008). Policing Gender at Work: Intersections of Harassment Based on Sex and Sexuality. Soc Just Res (2008) 21:313-337. Magley, V. (2002). Coping with sexual harassment: Reconceptualizing womens resistance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 83, 930-946. McCarty, W. Zhao, J. Garland, B. (2007). Occupational stress and burnout between male and female Police officers: Are there any gender differences? International Journal of Police Strategies Management, 30(4). Morash, M. Kwak, D. (2006). Gender differences in the predictors of police stress. An International Journal of Police Strategies Management, 29(3), 541-563. Natarajan, M. (2001). Women Police in a Traditional Society: Test of a Western Model of Integration. Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, IJCS XLII, 1-2. Natarajan, M. (2009). Women Police in a Changing Society. Backdoor to Equality. International Journal of Police Science Management. 11 (4), 518-520. Santos, M. (2004). EN-GENDERING THE POLICE: Womens Police Stations and Feminism in Sao Paulo. University of San Francisco. Seklecki, R. Paynich, R. (2007). A National Survey of Female Police Officers: An Overview of Findings. Police Practice and Research, 8(1), 17-30. Shaw, F. (2000). Coping with Sexual Harassment and Gender Bias. New York: The Rosen Publishing Group. Silvestri, M. (2003). Women in Charge: Policing, Gender and Leadership. The Australian and New Zealand journal of criminology, 304-307. Silvestri, M. (2005). Doing time: Becoming a police leader. International Journal of Police Science Management. 8(4), 266-288. Sun, I Chu, D. (2008). Gender differences in policing: an analysis of Taiwanese officers attitudes. Police Practice and Research, 9(5), 431-443 Thompson, B, Kirk, A Brown, F. (2005) Work based support, emotional exhaustion, and spillover of work stress to the family environment: A study o f policewomen. Stress and Health, 21 199-207. John Wiley Sons. Tougas, F Beaton, A. (2005). Policewomen Acting in Self-Defense: Can Psychological Disengagement Protect Self-Esteem From the Negative Outcomes of Relative Deprivation? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 88 (5), 790-800. Yim, Y. Bryan, S. (2009). Police and their perceived image: how community influence officers job satisfaction. Police Practice and Research, 10(1), 17-29

The African Identity | History and Concepts

The African Identity | History and Concepts According to the Lexicon Webster Dictionary an Identity is referred to as the condition or character that distinguishes a person or a thing (Lexicon Webster, 1981). The main distinguishing conditions or characteristics (the identity) that the slaves had were that they were black and Africans. Africans who were ripped from their homeland and brought into a new world to live under the rule of the white man (Europeans), who believed that they were inferior and whom they viewed as an oppressor. Question, did that Identity survive this oppression? Did that sense of being a proud, black, African get diminished by the slave trade? Agreeably, it would have been hard to maintain that identity, but I strongly believed that the strength of the African people, the strength that made them qualify for the labour required on the plantations, was the same strength they tapped into to hold on to every sense of I am an African. In this paper I would present ways in which they slaves would have been ab le to embosom the African Identity and reasons why many would think it was lost. Also I would confer the evidence present today to support that this identity survived long enough to have been transferred from generation to generation and is today, very present in the lives of the offspring of slaves. The slaves had to struggle to hold on to their Identity; a struggle that started as they were being forced from their homelands (Clarke, 1995). This struggle continued in the Americas. It was a brutal but not fatal assault of the black African slaves sense of self. They were being forced to accept a new identity; but did they really? Or was it just an idea? Although the slave masters restricted all forms or African culture from being practised and enforced their cultures, the slaves found creative ways of resisting this. A simple method such as masking it under the practises of the whites at least to keep some semblance of it alive was adopted (Saharan Vibe, 2007). Yes it would have been hard to maintain identities given that they were punished for doing so. However there are times when they could have interacted without the watchful eye of the slave master catching them (at nights, at church). There was always a defiant few whose bond to the sense of African identity was so strong that even these minimal moments were used to resist against the whites by keeping alive any forms of the identity possible and at least pass it on to other generations when they can (Lashington, 2011). There are numerous practises that we engage in today in the Caribbean and the Americas that are deeply rooted in African culture that even we dont realize. These support the fact that the Identity survived and lives today. It was so prominent it was called Africanism, the fight of the Africans to keep Africa Alive. This they did in different cultural Expressions: Religion, Music, Dance, Festival, Folk tales, Language, and customs. The extent to which the culture was kept alive was different from island to island because of the time the plantation system was started in the particular island and how many slaves were there (Phillip, 2010). I can personally attest to having participating in various expressions of traditional African culture. As a dancer I have been privy to learning the Bele dances a native African dance that is usually danced to the music of drums, shack shacks and sticks; a totally African combination. The Religion: having relatives that actively worship as Spiritual Baptist I was exposed to the Shango and Saraca which was accompanied by the same African instruments. I have witnessed customs such as the placing of black and red or blue Maljo beads on babies when born to ward of the evil spirits and attended many wakes in my short lifetime. I was taught in school of the Anansi stories that originate from Western Africa and other Moral stories. I have been in a su su before and have had many days of eating Ashum around all saints time. If I have experienced and is still experiencing elements of African culture today, how is it that it is said to have not survive the slave trade (Phillip, 2010). The foods we eat also stems from the African Identity. Examples of this are the ground provisions and salt fish (though the salt fish is more associated with slavery rather than African culture) but it was passed down. Going to the market early on a Saturday is another trait (Phillip, 2010). To focus on the expression of music to show how strongly some aspects were kept as compared to others. Just as music was used as a form of communication for the slaves during colonialism so it is today in the form of Calypso (especially in Trinidad) as social commentary and Reggae (mainly in Jamaica) is used to protest against forms of oppression. In some islands/colonies because the African music was not freely allowed there was a dilution with that of the Europeans. The same was for the language; hence the amalgamation of English and African to give patois in the British colonies and the French and African to give Creole language in the French colonies. The emergence of these new or modified languages did however play a pivotal role in the success of rebellions and resistances that were held in the Caribbean (Take Five, n.d). As a result of the traits of the Africans view that they will one day be free and return to the motherland that has been passed down, we are now experiencing today in the form of reggae music that reeks of the yearning of black people to return to the homeland. Well known reggae artiste Richie Spice in one of his latest albums In the Streets to Africa has two tracks on the album that pay tribute to the African heritage. One such track, Black like tar, where spice sings of being proud to be black and acknowledges Africa as the Motherland. Another of his tracks Motherland Calling sung as a chant to strong drumming music, Spice again acknowledges Africa as the motherland and the belief that even today the motherland is still calling; Africa is still waiting and one day will welcome all her children back home (Rastaman Vibrations, n.d). Then there is the Legendary Bob Marley who fought for black or African liberation from oppression. His songs spoke of Liberation and Unity. In the track Zimbabwe he urged the black man to get up and fight for be freedom/liberation and to have rights. The same for Get up stand up another call to get up and fight for our rights and to never give up on that fight. In another of his tracks Buffalo Soldier the words stolen from Africa, brought to America, fighting on arrival, fighting for survival; recognizes the fact that Africans were forced into slavery and have fought against the oppression of the colonialist systems to keep the African identity alive throughout (Rastaman Vibrations, n.d). The powerful message brought on by his songs continues with Marleys song Chant down Babylon. Babylon to Africans or black people symbolizes the spirit of those who enslave, commit genocide, slave labour and grind the poor less advantage peoples of the world. Marley also recognize the need for unity in the world. With this realization there came songs One love and Africa Unite a call to the people of the world to unite for the betterment of all people; especially Africans as they did during slavery. Lastly, there is the famous Redemption Song- the song of freedom. A song whose intent is to reassure the people that freedom is possible but that they must free minds before true liberation is realized. This is clear evidence that the same spirit of the African slave to be free and to return to their home land Africa still manifest in the lives of the Black people of the Caribbean and the Americas today. The reasons that many believe that this identity did not survive was because the great attempts of the Europeans to suppress any forms of the culture; because of the dehumanization instituted by slavery in the British colonies. These activities distorted the notion of what Africans thought of themselves to be but it did not eradicate it. This was the reason why the slaves rebelled and resisted against the inhumane treatment brought on by the European slave Trade; and the cultural domination it was instituting on the Africans (Bolland, 2002). I agree that there are elements or practices that would have been lost but to say generally that the Identity itself was lost is wrong. If it did not survive why then do we here chant of Kumbayas ringing from black churches today? Why kids are still taught with Anansi stories in the schools? The answer to these questions is simple because these things were passed down from our ancestors; slaves (Saharan Vibe, 2007). Another reason why it is believed that it was virtually impossible for African slaves to have a sense of identity was because it was never really acknowledged and when it was it was misrepresented as the white man was responsible for documentation of it (Clarke, 1995) This wasnt a happening only in the Americas. African history was shaped by external influences for centuries. From the Muslim historians from the eighth to fifteenth centuries to the accounts of European travellers during the age of exploration to the dreadful portrayal of Arica as a continent of eternal blackness by German philosopher G.W. Hegel in the nineteenth century. Thus it has been very difficult even in light of the decolonization movements of the continent. Continuing along that line, even native writers urged Africans themselves to come to terms with African Identity in relation to the wanton violence that had been imposed through post colonialism and that continues to plague Africans in post colonial times. In a painstaking recreation of how the western world created Africa as a historical construction, from backward, hostile and uncivilized portrayed by Hegel into the twentieth century Europes adoption of these older views (LeFlem, 2008). As a result of instances as these coupled with institutions such as the caste system that existed in the colonial plantation days that forced upon the slaves that blacks are inferior to the superior Whites, there was the emergence of a mentality that still lives on that have black people thinking that the white mans country, colour, culture etc is much better than ours (Baker, 2011). It is sometimes very easy when thinking of the African identity to equal it to Caribbean Identity or African American Identity. This is in no way true. If one tries to explain this concept of Caribbean Identity, an apt description of the typical Caribbean person is that he or she is part-African, part-European, part-Asian, part Native American but totally Caribbean; to understand this is to understand creative diversity (Midrelief.com, 2007). Again, this shows the survival of the African Identity; it was amalgamated with other influences (identities) to form the Caribbean Identity (Midrelief.com, 2007). A similar conceptualization can be concluded for African Americans. An important factor in this quest to determine the survival of the slave Africans identity is to understand that it has been exposed to Globalization. I strongly believed the remaining traits of that identity is being further diminished by this phenomenon. The culture that many fought to keep alive for so many years is becoming more and more obsolete by the broken down barriers in communication and travel and the many advances in technology (Take Five, n.d). Conclusion Though slavery raped us of the authenticity and pureness off the rich African culture that was once the boast of any African it was the strength of the African that helped him to keep to the struggle to emancipate himself from the shackles of a colonial legacy and not be captives in that evil system (Take Five, n.d). It is with certainty that I say that the African Identity is very much animate in the lives of many individuals, communities, nations, and continents because it has truly survived the attempts of colonialist to eradicate the sense of Africanism that was kept living in the hearts of the African natives throughout the duration of slavery and is still is present in the everyday lives of this generation whether we are aware of it or not. Agreeably the traces of the culture that is present today shows that it could not have been lost. Diluted? It is possible. Hidden in fusions with practices from colonial countries? Yes. But to say that the African Identity was lost because t hey were not in their homeland is not right (Midrelief.com, 2007). The onus is on us this present generation to keep what has survive to today and/or reformulate with what we learnt about the culture of our ancestors. We need to always remember how truly a proud, courageous, and intelligent people our African ancestors were, and that we must claim their spirit. All that is left is for us to use it to fully emancipate our minds! (Take Five, n.d)

The Value of Currency in Eighteenth Century England Essay -- European

The Value of Currency in Eighteenth Century England For most of the eighteenth century, a shilling a day was a fair wage for most workers. Highly skilled workmen naturally made more; unskilled laborers and farm workers fared somewhat less favorably. One shilling would take home "5 Ibs.. of meat or four rabbits, 3 quarts of strong ale, or 6 gallons of 'middling' beer" (Mays 6). M. Dorothy George relates that the cheapest theatre seat, in the top gallery, was about a shilling. And the "weekly rent of a miserable London attic, ready furnished" might be 1 shilling six pence" (George Hogarth 51 n). John O'Donald Mays points out: The coin would also allow the traveler to ride about 4 miles on the stagecoach in winter, and a slightly greater distance in summer. At a noted Liverpool inn, 'The Lion,' a couple could pay a shilling and enjoy a fine meal consisting of veal cutlets, pigeons, asparagus, lamb and salad, apple-pie and tarts. In London the shilling had a slightly lower purchasing power than in the provinces, but nonetheless went a long way in supplying items for the family larder. For twelve pence one could get almost 4 Ibs.. of meat, 1 = Ibs.. of salt butter, almost 3 oz. of tea, 2 Ibs.. of sugar, and 2 Ibs.. of cheese. (quoted in Mays 7) For a country girl traveling to the city, the cheapest, and slowest, form of travel was the wagon. For a mere "shilling a day, which meant a halfpenny a mile," she might even have the luxury of lying in the soft straw. Nights however might also have to be spent either in the wagon or in a bam along the way since no respectable inn would lodge someone who rode in a wagon (George, Hogarth 51 ) . Not nearly so comfortable, but much more dignified, was the stage coach. ... ...(Porter 93). A Conversion Table from Roy Porter s English Society in the Eighteenth Century: * 12 pennies (d.) = 1 shilling (s.) * 20 shillings = 1 pound * 21 shillings = 1 guinea * 5 shillings = 1 crown 100 pounds in the 18 century = about 6,000 pounds today To roughly convert 18th century pounds to 1990 dollars, multiply by 100 (these exchange rates and computations, compliments of Dr. Grove) Works Cited Defoe, Daniel. The Complete English Tradesman. Gloucester: Allan Sutton Publ., 1987 - - - . Moll Flanders. Mineola: Dover, 1996. George, M. Dorothy. Hogarth to Cruikshank: Social Change in Graphic Satire. London: Viking, 1987. Mays, James O'Donald. The Splendid Shilling: A Social History of an Engaging Coin. Burley: Pardy & Son, 1982. Porter, Roy. English Society in the Eighteenth Century. London: Penguin, 1990.

The Tempest, Critical Review :: essays research papers

Prospero's Plottings After years of writing plays of history, tragedy, grand comedy and dramatic romance, William Shakespeare emerged from his darker writing of the past into the lighter, more peaceful style of his play â€Å"The Tempest.† This was Shakespeare’s last complete play, and, just as he bid farewell to the art he had so mastered, his principal character Prospero departs from his artful magic on the island he omnisciently controls. While Prospero’s early actions against his foes echo the ideas of a vengeful god, he strives to educate more than to correct. He portions out the justice he carries out with mercy, even when his enemies are delivered directly into his divine power, and, by doing so, proves to be the master of himself, embodying the qualities expected of a good ruler.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prospero’s omnipresence during the play is one the more obvious physical signs that he is in control of all his surroundings. The right Duke of Milan, he was exiled with his daughter, Miranda, to a remote island twelve years prior to the play’s beginning by his usurping brother Antonio, only surviving with the help of the good-hearted advisor Gonzalo. With the help of his spirit servant Ariel, Prospero stirs up a storm to beach a passing ship containing Alonso, king of Naples, who aided Antonio’s usurpation, his brother Sebastian and son Ferdinand, and Antonio himself, so he may confront them. Ferdinand is separated from the rest, is thought to be drowned, and courts Miranda, is put to the test by Prospero, and ultimately marries her. Ironically, Antonio coaxes Sebastian to plot to depose Alonso while they are being punished on the island because of usurpation. Prospero’s deformed slave Caliban encounters two lower members of Alsonsoâ⠂¬â„¢s court, Trinculo the jester and Stephano the drunken butler and the three foolishly plot to win control of the island, under the unblinking eye of Prospero, who punishes them through Ariel’s trickery. In the end, all are brought before Prospero who forgives all, but reclaims his Dukedom, and releases Ariel and Caliban from his control. He renounces his magical powers and returns to Italy having learned the virtues of self-mastery from his exile.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Prospero’s character is portrayed as entirely good throughout the play, using his magic only to achieve positive ends such as education. He is one with his environment as he has developed superior intellectual powers, now realizing that he marked himself to be ousted by his distance from everyday affairs.

The Way the Internet Has Changed Business Operate in the Global Market

The way the Internet has changed businesses operate in the global market Nowadays more and more people use the Internet in their everyday life and we can clearly see the progress of businesses. The Internet has changed the ways businesses operate in the global market. The long-distance communications become possible with the help of progressing technology. It helps businesses to develop and to operate in better and more productive way.The Scientific and Technical progress enable people to discover great opportunities. The Internet, personal computers, laptops and other different up-to date devices and programs replace the more old-fashion ways of managing with different tasks. Moreover, people can be always well-informed. You can enter the Internet in any time and any place, even with your telephone, in order to keep track of events and to be always ready to manage with new tasks. So, the Internet is moving and gives us more opportunities. Also you can read  Business Ethics ComprisesVideo conversation, Skype, E-mails, instant messengers and different conference calling help us to organize meetings, to discuss different perspectives and problems in a wide circle of participants. Through the network people can create better working atmosphere than in the office. More and more people start to make money through the Internet. They prefer working from home rather than in the office. As the result, they have better productivity and self-realization. In the same time that modern technologies has no boundaries.The Internet joins people all over the world. It became possible for people and teams from the great distance to communicate and to do their businesses through the virtual world in any time and place. Furthermore, the last and probably the greatest change are marketing. People can sell and buy different things through the Internet. You are also able to pay for everything through the Internet. It makes life easier and b etter, because you can do everything from your place: to order, to pay and then to get everything.There are a lot of different on-line services, courses and schools as well. In conclusion, the Internet within the latest technologies allows a great number of different services and offers in order to improve and to simplify all human needs. Up to that point, the users enjoy the ways that the Internet has changed. On one side, it simplifies life of commoners and the owners of big businesses. On the other side, it makes good money and in this case it increases profits and wages.

Meaning of life essay Essay

What is the meaning of life? Many agree that the answer depends on the person asking the question. When Albert Camus and Richard Taylor decide to answer this question, they must take an in-depth look into the real and mythological worlds to arrive at a concise answer to this question that has baffled so many. Both have similar views with subtle differences – however Taylor’s view is the more accurate of the two. When looking into the biological world, Taylor clearly describes how much of it can be identified with the Greek tale of Sisyphus. His first of two examples take an in-depth look into glowworms. They go through this cycle like Sisyphus did with his rock and ultimately they have nothing more to show for it than reproducing. They are condemned to this fate and like the rock that Sisyphus rolls up the hill, once they fall down, the burden is passed onto the next generation of worms, making their existence ultimately pointless. The story is the same with migrating birds, as they seasonally migrate across the planet just to do the exact same thing the next year (Klemke, 2008). The effort put into this, like the effort Sisyphus puts into rolling the rock up the hill, ultimately accomplishes nothing and in the end is futile. The birds are condemned to a meaningless task that has no meaning, but gives them purpose. Taylor states â€Å"The point of any living thing’s life is, evidently, nothing but life itself† (Klemke, 2008), something that Sisyphus himself endures as he rolls the rock throughout eternity, with the only difference between him and the biological beings being that instead of each organism doing the same repetitive task for eternity, they pass on their mundane tasks to the next generation. Taylor’s solution to the meaning of life is a complicated one since he truly sees absolutely no meaning to it. Everything in this world is contingent and as a whole is seemingly meaningless. This is what he calls ‘objective meaning’. He went on to say that life has no end goal and that what you do can never be more than you, something similar to what Sisyphus went through. At the same time, he went on to say how life also has subjective meaning, meaning that life matters to the person living in that world in that period of time. As Sisyphus was rolling the rock up hill hill for eternity, Taylor asks what if the gods had made it his eternal desire to roll that rock up that hill, and what if he enjoyed nothing else more than rolling that rock for the rest of his life (Klemke, 2008). The same can be said about those that do what they love, and even though that has no objective meaning as a whole, it could have subjective meaning to the individual performing the task since there is nothing else they would rather do. He went on to say that as time passes â€Å"A curious eye can in imagination reconstruct from what is left a once warm and thriving life, filled with purpose. † (Klemke, 2008). This was in reference to looking back at an old barren wasteland, where although now it has no meaning, it once had subjective meaning to others – and even though something has no end goal, that does not mean that it is meaningless, since in that moment in time it had meaning. He sees the meaning of life as nothing but life itself, and that the only way to live a full and meaningful life is to do something that has meaning to you. The end goal does not matter as long as what you are doing has meaning to you, and one thing does not have greater meaning over another. His solution involved projecting meaning onto our own lives by embracing our struggles, even if they accomplish nothing lasting and worthwhile (Cengage, 2013). Camus had a slightly different solution to the meaning of life. He truly saw no meaning to life and questioned why anyone would ever want to live in it (Klemke, 2008). He questioned people’s motives and why all individuals would never commit suicide when they know that they saw the world they lived in. He sees the world as absurd and the fact that we can accept that as surprising. Rational beings live in an irrational world, where people who are obsessed with reason cannot find it. He sees that the there is absolutely no meaning to the world. When he relates human lives to Sisyphus, he considers our everyday lives as pushing a rock up a hill and pushing it back down in a never-ending cycle until death. The tragedy of it is that we are never truly conscious of the absurd, and in those moments when we are conscious of the absurd, we experience the greatest moral downfall imaginable. The only way to live in this world is to live in contradiction. Once we can accept that the world we live in is absurd, we no longer need to live for hope or have this dying need for purpose (Tomo, 2013). It means not only accepting it but also being fully conscious and aware of it, because that is the only way we can enjoy the freedoms of life as long as we abide by a few common rules (Lane, 2013). He sees this as being the ultimate way to embrace everything the unreasonable world has to offer us. This is known as absurd freedom, when you are conscious of the world you live in and are freed from the absurdity. You can then reach a point of acceptance where you can feel truly content with your own life (Lane, 2013). He considers Sisyphus as being the absurd hero, since he performs a meaningless task because he hates death, and so he does this meaningless task to live to the fullest. He embraces his destiny and one could truly believe that he is happy with it. The meaning of life also does not matter about what are the best moments of living, or doing what is meaningful to the individual, but who did the most living. This can be further explained with Camus’s reference to Sisyphus, where the only thing differentiating our lives from his is that his is eternal. As humans, we will eventually deteriorate and die off, and in a world where nothing has meaning and everything is repetitive, the one who has lived for the longest period of time has truly made the most of it. Out of the two solutions, it is clear why both Camus and Taylor thought the way they did. One solution was based on doing things in general while the other focused on living as long as physically possible. In my opinion, although both have strong footings, I must say that although Camus position is slightly stronger logically, Taylor’s position has much better emotional traction. When Camus states that the world is completely absurd and that none of it has any meaning, his argument makes sense. We live in a world where even though we are creatures that demand reasoning and meaning for everything, there is none in the world we are currently in. Taylor agrees to a certain extent, but then introduces his idea of different kinds of meaning: subjective. He tries to give meaning to tasks that give us fulfillment – true subjective meaning, but these same tasks have no objective meaning since they have no end goal. Logically, such tasks can have no meaning because they have no lasting value, something that Camus himself tried to explain, ultimately making Camus’s position stronger logically. Emotionally, the case is quite the opposite. Camus tells us we should accept our fate and just try to live on this planet for as long as we can, something only an atheist would willingly accept with grace. He goes on to say as long as there is no end goal in life; there is no meaning in life. However, many that live their every day lives do not think on such an emotionless level. Taylor on the other hand gives the position of there being two different kinds of meanings, and although objective meaning doesn’t exist, subjective meaning can give each one of us our own definition of what meaning is, which in this case is something to do. Even though the culmination of these events will ultimately lead to nothing, it doesn’t mean that they were a complete waste of time since they gave us something to do (. The same can be said about the birds and the glowworms. Their lives have no end goal as their lives were nothing but a never-ending cycle, but it gave them something to do in life – no matter how meaningless it may seem to someone looking from the outside in. The most important point Taylor makes is that the tasks we do can have meaning to us, but another individual looking in could see the exact same task as being meaningless, and that is to be expected. Subjective meaning depends on the exact moment in time, which relates to such expressions as â€Å"live in the moment† or â€Å"Carpe Diem†, because after that moment has passed, all the meaning that is associated with it disappears. People like to believe that what they’re doing will always have meaning in one form or another, and as long as they believe in that, they are in a better state of mind than believing that everything in life is meaningless and that we should only strive to live as long as we can. This can be seen as living in denial, but emotions are something humans unlike many animals live with on a minutely basis and must be accounted for. Furthermore, although Camus position makes logical sense, it makes little to know emotional sense since it does not account for the human aspect of life. CITATIONS Barnett, Richard. â€Å"An absurd faith: Camus and The Myth of Sisyphus. † Internet Archive: Wayback Machine. http://web. archive. org/web/20071012140207/http://www. geocities. com/a_and_e_uk/Sisyphus. htm (accessed March 19, 2013). (Only for research purposes) Lane , Bob. â€Å"The Absurd Hero. † Vancouver Island University, Degree Programs Canada – Master & Bachelor Education Degrees Canada | VIU. http://records. viu. ca/www/ipp/absurd. htm (accessed March 19, 2013). Klemke, E. D. , and Steven M. Cahn. â€Å"Albert Camus: The Myth of Sisyphus. † In _The meaning of life: a reader_. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 72-82. Klemke, E. D. , and Steven M. Cahn. â€Å"Richard Taylor: The Meaning of Life. † In _The meaning of life: a reader_. 3rd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. 134-143. â€Å"The Meaning of life: Richard Taylor. † Cengage. www. cengage. com/philosophy/book_content/1439046948_feinberg/introductions/part_5/ch19/Life_Taylor. html (accessed March 19, 2013). Tomo, Ramirez. â€Å"Camus, â€Å"Sisyphus† Taylor, â€Å"The Meaning of Life†. † Deanza. edu. www. deanza. edu/faculty/ramireztono/phil01/camustaylornotes. pdf (accessed March 19, 2013).

Chapter 9 world history AP notes Essay

Overall Summary (ablongman)- â€Å"In addition to the great civilizations of Asia and North Africa forming during the postclassical period, two related major civilizations formed in Europe. The Byzantine Empire, in western Asia and southeastern Europe, expanded into eastern Europe. The other was defined by the influence of Catholicism in western and central Europe. The Byzantine Empire, with territory in the Balkans, the Middle East, and the eastern Mediterranean, maintained very high levels of political, economic, and cultural life between 500 and 1450 C.E. The empire continued many Roman patterns and spread its Orthodox Christian civilization through most of eastern Europe, Belarus, Ukraine, and Russia. Catholic Christianity, without an imperial center, spread in western Europe. Two separate civilizations emerged from the differing Christian influences† The Byzantine Empire â€Å"The Byzantine Empire unfolded initially as part of the greater Roman Empire. Then, as this framework shattered with Roman decline, it took a life of its own, particularly from the reign of Emperor Justinian onward. It centered on a territory different from and smaller than the eastern Mediterranean as Rome had defined it. This was the result of new pressures, particularly the surge of Islam throughout North Africa and the bulk of the Middle East. Despite many attacks, the empire flourished until the 11th century.† Origins of the Empire: †¢You can think of the beginning of the empire as the 4th century CE oThis was when the Romans set up their western capitol of Constantinople †¢This one city became a strong and thriving center of an empire with a falling imperial structure †¢Emperor Constantine started to build many elaborate buildings, some of which were Christian churches oBuild his city off of the small town of Byzantium oEastern emperors would rule from this new city †¢Even before the fall of western Rome †¢Warded off intruders (including the Huns) †¢Had a solid tax base because of the peasant agriculture of the eastern Mediterranean †¢Emperor Justinian (in the 6th century) changed the official language to Greek (Latin had been the court language of the eastern empire; however, it became inferior & considered barbaric) oThis Greek knowledge gave scholars of the eastern empire to read the ancient Athenian philosophical and literary classics & the Hellenistic writings freely †¢High levels of commerce (Had been in the eastern Mediterranean) helped the new empire †¢Hellenized Egyptians and Syrians started to become involved in their administration oThis was due to the fact that many of them were moving to Constantinople (& entered the expanding bureaucracy) †¢Byzantine empire had many foreign enemies